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发表于 2020-11-29 08:14:58
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Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................xv
Author ....................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Failure Analysis .....................................................1
The Causes of Failures .........................................................................2
Root Cause Analysis (RCA) and Understanding the Roots .................4
Physical Roots .................................................................................4
Human Roots ...................................................................................5
The Human Error Study ..................................................................8
Latent Roots ................................................................................... 11
The Multiple Roots and How They Interact .......................................12
Why Multiple Roots Are Frequently Missed ................................12
The Benefts and Savings ................................................................... 14
Using Logic Trees .............................................................................. 18
Chapter 1 Summary ...................................................................... 18
Bibliography ....................................................................................... 19
Chapter 2 Some General Comments on Failure Analysis .................................. 21
The Failure Mechanisms – How They Occur and
Their Appearances ............................................................................. 21
When Should a Failure Analysis Be Conducted and
How Deeply Should It Go? ............................................................ 21
How Long Should It Last? ........................................................22
Diagnosing the Failure..............................................................24
Finding the Physical Roots .......................................................26
Comments on the Seven Steps – Continued .............................27
Introduction to Materials – Stresses and Strains ......................29
Determining the Failure Mechanisms ......................................30
The Plant Failure Analysis Laboratory ....................................30
Chapter 2 Summary ......................................................................33
Bibliography .......................................................................................33
Chapter 3 Materials and the Sources of Stresses ................................................35
Stress ..................................................................................................35
Elasticity .............................................................................................36
Plasticity .............................................................................................37
Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus) ..........................................39
Toughness ...........................................................................................40
Fatigue ................................................................................................42
Fatigue Strength vs. Time ..................................................................42
Some Basic Metallurgy ......................................................................45
Carbon Steels .....................................................................................46
Iron and Its Alloying Elements .....................................................49
SAE Numbering Code ........................................................................ 51
Understanding Steel Terminology and Material Designations .......... 53
Cast Iron .............................................................................................54
Stainless Steels ...................................................................................54
Strengthening Metals ......................................................................... 55
Heat Treating ......................................................................................56
Cold Working .....................................................................................58
Thermal Expansion ............................................................................58
Temperature Effect on Tensile, Fatigue and Yield Strengths ........60
Chapter 3 Summary ......................................................................60
Bibliography ....................................................................................... 61
Chapter 4 Overload Failures ...............................................................................63
Introduction ........................................................................................63
Temperature Effects on Overload Failures ....................................66
Analysis of Ductile Failures ..........................................................68
Analysis of Brittle Fractures..........................................................70
Chevron Marks ......................................................................... 71
Unusual Conditions ............................................................................72
Brittle Fractures of Ductile Materials ...........................................72
Rapid Force Application ...........................................................73
Constrained Materials .............................................................. 74
Notch Sensitivity of Brittle Materials ....................................... 75
Three Valuable Brittle Fracture Examples ....................................77
A Case Hardened Bell Crank ...................................................77
Brittle Fracture of Two Very Ductile Stainless Bolts ...............78
A Great Welding Metallurgy/Brittle Fracture/Failure
Analysis Example .....................................................................78
Chapter 4 Summary ......................................................................80
Bibliography .......................................................................................80
Chapter 5 Fatigue Failures (Part 1): The Basics ................................................. 81
Fatigue Failure Categories ................................................................. 81
Stress Concentrations .........................................................................83
Structure Changes Caused by High Cycle Fatigue ............................84
Diagnosing a High Cycle Fatigue Failure ..........................................86
Progression Mark Basics ....................................................................86
Fracture Growth and Understanding the Source of
the Stress – Rotating Bending vs. Plain Bending ...............................88
Progression Marks and Varying Stress Levels ................................... 91
Contents
Progression Marks and Stress Concentrations ...................................93
Ratchet Marks ....................................................................................93
Rotating Bending Failures with Multiple Origins ..............................96
Stress and Stress Concentrations ........................................................96
Fracture Face Contours and Stress Concentrations............................98
Interpreting the Instantaneous Zone (IZ) Shape ................................99
Guides to Interpreting the Fatigue Fracture Face ............................ 101
Solving Failure ................................................................................. 101
Bibliography ..................................................................................... 110
Chapter 6 Fatigue Failures (Part 2): Torsional, Low, and Very
Low Cycle, Failure Infuences, and Some Fatigue
Interpretations .................................................................................. 111
Torsional Fatigue and Failures ......................................................... 111
River Marks and Fatigue Crack Growth .......................................... 116
Plate and Rectangular Member Failures .......................................... 117
Fatigue Data Reliability and Corrosion Effect on
Fatigue Strength ............................................................................... 119
Residual Stress contribution to Fatigue Cracking ............................ 121
Combined Fatigue and Steady State Stresses ................................... 122
Base Material Problems ...................................................................123
Very Low Cycle and Low Cycle Fatigue .........................................124
VLC in Relatively Brittle Materials ............................................124
VLC in Ductile Materials ............................................................126
Unusual Situations ............................................................................ 127
Failure Examples ..............................................................................128
Bibliography ..................................................................................... 136
Chapter 7 Understanding and Recognizing Corrosion ..................................... 137
Some Basics about Corrosion ........................................................... 137
Conditions Affecting Corrosion Rates ............................................. 140
Temperature Effects .................................................................... 140
pH Effects .................................................................................... 142
Oxygen Availability ..................................................................... 144
Exposure Time and Flow Effects ................................................ 144
The Effect of Atmosphere and Contaminants ............................. 147
How Oxides Prevent or Reduce Corrosion (Aluminum,
Stainless Steel, Etc.) .................................................................... 149
The Types of Corrosion .................................................................... 149
Uniform Corrosion ...................................................................... 150
Appearance ............................................................................. 150
Comments on Uniform Corrosion .......................................... 152
Prevention ............................................................................... 152
Fretting.................................................................................... 153 |
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